In ecosystems, species interact in various ways with other species, and with their local environment. In addition, ecosystems are coupled in space by diverse types of flows. From these links connecting different ecological entities can emerge circular pathways of indirect effects: feedback loops. This contributes to creating a nested set of ecological feedbacks operating at different organizational levels as well as spatial and temporal scales in ecological systems: organisms modifying and being affected by their local abiotic environment, demographic and behavioral feedbacks within populations and communities, and spatial feedbacks occurring at the landscape scale. Here, we review how ecological feedbacks vary in space and time, and discuss the emergent properties they generate such as species coexistence or the spatial heterogeneity and stability of ecological systems. With the aim of identifying similarities across scales, we identify the abiotic and biotic modulators that can change the sign and strength of feedback loops and show that these feedbacks can interact in space or time. Our review shows that despite acting at different scales and emerging from different processes, feedbacks generate similar macroscopic properties of ecological systems across levels of organization. Ultimately, our contribution emphasizes the need to integrate such feedbacks to improve our understanding of their joint effects on the dynamics, patterns, and stability of ecological systems.

中文翻译：

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整合不同规模和组织层次的生态反馈

在生态系统中，物种以各种方式与其他物种及其当地环境相互作用。此外，生态系统在空间上通过不同类型的流动耦合。从这些连接不同生态实体的链接中可以出现间接影响的循环路径：反馈循环。这有助于在生态系统的不同组织层面以及空间和时间尺度上创建一组嵌套的生态反馈：改变当地非生物环境并受其影响的生物体、种群和社区内的人口和行为反馈以及发生的空间反馈在景观尺度上。在这里，我们回顾生态反馈如何随空间和时间变化，并讨论它们产生的新兴特性，例如物种共存或生态系统的空间异质性和稳定性。为了确定跨尺度的相似性，我们确定了可以改变反馈循环的符号和强度的非生物和生物调节剂，并表明这些反馈可以在空间或时间上相互作用。我们的审查表明，尽管在不同的规模上采取行动并产生于不同的过程，但反馈会在组织层面产生相似的生态系统宏观特性。最终，我们的贡献强调需要整合这些反馈，以提高我们对它们对生态系统的动态、模式和稳定性的共同影响的理解。