Abstract
One of the most significant aspects of cultural variation that world archaeology has revealed is the many different forms of social complexity among ancient and more recent premodern societies. Although this exposes the shortcomings of older evolutionary approaches, Levantine and broader Near Eastern archaeology remains relatively inflexible and conservative in the perception of social complexity in the archaeological record. A necessary association between complexity and monumentality remains prevalent, whereby monumentality is understood as an important operative cog in the complexity machine. Conversely, complexity can only be read in the archaeological record where monumentality is present. This paper seeks to untie this necessary association by demonstrating that complexity without monumentality occurred in societies of the biblical period that were fully or partly nomadic and otherwise lacked a clear cultural conception of monumentality as central to the ideology of political authority and structure. This is done through the presentation of early Iron Age Edom and its implications for the understanding of the neighboring United Monarchy of ancient Israel.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References Cited
Aharoni, Y. (1979). The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography, rev. ed., Westminster, Philadelphia.
Albright, W. F. (1942). Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Alden, J. R. (2015). Review of D.T. Potts, Nomadism in Iran: From antiquity to the modern era. Antiquity 89: 996–997.
Alizadeh, A. (2010). The rise of the highland Elamite state in southwestern Iran. Current Anthropology 51: 353–383.
Alon, Y. (2005). The tribal system in the face of the state-formation process: Mandatory Transjordan, 1921–46. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37: 213–240.
Alt, A. (1986). Essays on Old Testament History and Religion, JSOT Press, Sheffield.
Alt, S. M. (2010). Considering complexity: Confounding categories with practices. In S. M. Alt (ed.), Ancient Complexities: New Perspectives in Precolumbian North America, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 1–7.
Arbuckle, B. S., and Hammer, L. E. (2019). The rise of pastoralism in the ancient Near East. Journal of Archaeological Research 27: 391–449.
Assi, S. (2018). The original Arabs: The invention of the “Bedouin race” in Ottoman Palestine. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 50: 213–232.
Baily, C. (2018). Bedouin Culture in the Bible, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Barth, F. (1967). On the study of social change. American Anthropologist 69: 661–669.
Bawden, G. (1989). The Andean state as a state of mind. Journal of Anthropological Research 45: 327–332.
Bayman, J. (2018). From Hohokam archaeology to narratives of the ancient Hawaiian “state.” Journal of Arizona Archaeology 6: 1–12.
Bayman, J. M., Dye, T. S., and Rieth, T. M. (2021). States without archaeological correlates? A report from Hawai‘i. Journal of Pacific Archaeology 12: 47–71.
Beherec, M. (2011). Nomads in Transition: Mortuary Archaeology in the Lowlands of Edom (Jordan), Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego.
Beherec, M. A., Levy, T. E., Tirosh, O., Najjar, M., Knabb, K. A. and Erel, Y. (2016). Iron Age nomads and their relation to copper smelting in Faynan (Jordan): Trace metal and Pb and Sr isotopic measurements from the Wadi Fidan 40 cemetery. Journal of Archaeological Science 65: 70–83.
Beherec, M., Najjar, M., and Levy, T. E. (2014). Wadi Fidan 40 and mortuary archaeology in the Edom Lowlands. In Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., and Ben-Yosef, E. (eds.), New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan, Vol. 1, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles, pp. 665–721.
Belfer-Cohen, A., and Goring-Morris, A. N. (2009). The tyranny of the ethnographic record, revisited. Paléorient 35: 107–108.
Ben-Ami, D. (2012). The Iron Age I (stratum “XII/XI”): Stratigraphy and pottery. In Ben-Tor, A., Ben-Ami, D., and Sandhaus, D. (eds.), Hazor VI: The 1990–2009 Excavations: The Iron Age, Israel Exploration Society/Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, pp. 7–51.
Ben-Dor Evian, S., Yagel, O., Harlavan, Y., Seri, H., Lewinsky, J., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2021). Pharaoh’s copper: The provenance of copper in bronze artifacts from post-imperial Egypt at the end of the second millennium BCE. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 38: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103025.
Ben-Yosef, E. (2010). Technology and Social Process: Oscillations in Iron Age Copper Production and Power in Southern Jordan, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego.
Ben-Yosef, E. (2016). Back to Solomon’s era: Results of the first excavations at “Slaves’ Hill” (Site 34, Timna, Israel). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 376: 169–198.
Ben-Yosef, E. (2018). The Central Timna Valley Project: Research design and preliminary results. In Ben-Yosef, E. (ed.), Mining for Ancient Copper: Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg, Eisenbrauns/Tel Aviv University, Winona Lake/Tel Aviv, pp. 28–63.
Ben-Yosef, E. (2019). The “architectural bias” in current biblical archaeology. Vetus Testamentum 69: 361–387.
Ben-Yosef, E. (2020). And yet, a nomadic error: A reply to Israel Finkelstein. Antiguo Oriente 18: 33–60.
Ben-Yosef, E. (2021). Rethinking social complexity of early Iron Age nomads. Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology 1: 155–179.
Ben-Yosef, E. (in press). A false contrast? On the possibility of an early Iron Age nomadic monarchy in the Arabah (Early Edom) and its implications to the study of ancient Israel. In Koch, I., Lipschits, O., and Sergi, O. (eds.), From Nomadism to Monarchy? Revisiting the Early Iron Age Southern Levant, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Ben-Yosef, E., Langgut, D., and Sapir-Hen, L. (2017). Beyond smelting: New insights on Iron Age (10th c. BCE) metalworkers community from excavations at a gatehouse and associated livestock pens in Timna, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 11: 411–426.
Ben-Yosef, E., Liss, B., Yagel, O., Najjar, M., Tirosh, O., and Levy, T. E. (2019). Ancient technology and punctuated change: Detecting the emergence of biblical Edom. PLoS One 14: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221967.
Ben-Yosef, E., and Levy, T. E. (2014). The material culture of Iron Age copper production in Faynan. In Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., and Ben-Yosef, E. (eds.), New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan, Vol. 2, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles, pp. 887–959.
Ben-Yosef, E., and Sergi, O. (2018). The destruction of Gath by Hazael and the Arabah copper industry: A reassessment. In Shai, I., Chadwick, J. R., Hitchcock, L. A., Dagan, A., McKinney, C., and Uziel, J. (eds.), Tell It in Gath: Studies in the History and Archaeology of Israel Essays in Honor of Aren M. Maeir on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday, Zaphon, Münster, pp. 461–480.
Benz, B. C. (2016). The Land Before the Kingdom of Israel, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake.
Bernbeck, R. (2008). An archaeology of multisited communities. In Barnard, H., and Wendrich, W. (eds.), The Archaeology of Mobility: Old World and New World Nomadism, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles, pp. 43–77.
Bienkowski, P. (1990). Umm el-Biyara, Tawilan and Buseirah in retrospect. Levant XXII: 91–109.
Bienkowski, P. (1992). The beginning of the Iron Age in Edom: A reply to Finkelstein. Levant XXIV: 167–169.
Bienkowski, P. (2009). ‘Tribalism’ and ‘segmentary society’ in Iron Age Transjordan. In Bienkowski, P. (ed.), Studies on Iron Age Moab and Neighbouring Areas in Honour of Michele Daviau, Peeters, Leuven, pp. 7–26.
Bilgin, T. (2018). Officials and Administration in the Hittite World, de Gruyter, Berlin.
Binford, L. R. (1962). Archaeology as anthropology. American Antiquity 28: 217–225.
Biran, M. (2015). Introduction: Nomadic culture. In Amitai, R., and Biran, M. (eds.), Nomads as Agents of Cultural Change: The Mongols and Their Eurasian Predecessors, University of Haawai’i Press, Honolulu, pp. 1–9.
Blakeley, J. W. (2021). The changing landscape of the Hesi region and its implications for archaeological research. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 9: 135–163.
Bradley, R. J. (1992). Nomads in the Archaeological Record: Case Studies in the Northern Provinces of the Sudan, Akademie, Berlin.
Bradley, R. (1993). Altering the Earth: The Origins of Monuments in Britain and Continental Europe, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edinburgh.
Brooks, J. F. (2016). The Southwest. In Hoxie, F. E. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of American Indian History, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 217–233.
Bunimovitz, S. (2007). Archaeological views: Children of three paradigms. Biblical Archaeology Review 33: 30, 80.
Carballo, D. M. (ed.) (2013). Cooperation and Collective Action: Archaeological Perspectives, University Press of Colorado, Boulder.
Cavanagh, M. (2016). Sustainability of an industry on the fringe: A dendroarchaeological investigation into fuel sources at the Iron Age copper smelting sites of the Timna Valley, M.A. thesis, Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Chapman, R. (2007). Evolution, complexity and the state. In Kohring, S., and Wynne-Jones, S. (eds.), Socialising Complexity: Approaches to Power and Interaction in the Archaeological Record, Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 13–28.
Charpin, D., and Durand, J.-M. (1986). Fils de Sim’al: Les origines tribales des Rois de Mari. Revue d'Assyriologie et d'Archéologie Orientale 80: 141–183.
Childe, V. G. (1936). Man Makes Himself, Watts & Co., London.
Claessen, H. J., and Skalnik, P. (eds.) (1978). The Early State, Mouton, The Hague.
Cooper, J. (2018). Kushites expressing ‘Egyptian’ kingship: Nubian dynasties in hieroglyphic texts and a phantom Kushite king. Ägypten und Levante XXVIII: 143–167.
Cooper, J. (2020). A Nomadic State? The ‘Blemmyean-Beja’ Polity of the Ancient Eastern Desert. Journal of African History 61: 383–407.
Cribb, R. (1991). Nomads in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
David, M., Kislev, M., Melamed, Y., Ben-Yosef, E., and Weiss, E. (2022). Plant remains from Rothenberg’s excavations in Timna: Smelters’ food amd cultic offering at the turn of the 1st millennium BCE. Tel Aviv 49: 230–249.
Dearman, J. A. (ed.) (1989). Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab, Scholars Press, Atlanta.
Delitz, H., and Levenson, F. (2019). The social meaning of big architecture, or the sociology of the monumental. In Buccellati, F., Hageneuer, S., van der Heyden, S., and Levenson, F. (eds.), Size Matters: Understanding Monumentality across Ancient Civilizations, transcript Verlag, Bielefeld, pp. 107–132.
Dever, W. G. (1995). Ceramics, ethnicity, and the question of Israelite origins. Biblical Archaeologist 58: 200–213.
Dever, W. G. (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? Eerdmans, Grand Rapids.
Dever, W. G. (2017). Beyond the Texts: An Archaeological Portrait of Ancient Israel and Judah, SBL Press, Atlanta.
Drompp, M. B. (2005). Imperial state formation in Inner Asia: The early Turkic empires (6th to 9th centuries). Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 58: 101–111.
Dunnell, R. C. (1980). Evolutionary theory and archaeology. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 3: 35–99.
Durand, J.-M. (1998). Documents épistolaires du Palais de Mari, Tome II, Éditions du Cerf, Paris.
Emberling, G. M. (2014). Pastoralist states: Towards a comparative archaeology of early Kush. Origini XXXVI: 125–156.
Everhart, T. D. (2021). On the monumentality of ditches. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 62: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2021.101295.
Faust, A. (2006). Israel’s Ethnogenesis, Equinox, London.
Faust, A. (2010). Future directions in the study of ethnicity in ancient Israel. In Levy, T. E. (ed.), Historical Biblical Archaeology and the Future: The New Pragmatism, Equinox, London, pp. 55–68.
Faust, A. (2014). Highlands or lowlands? Reexamining demographic processes in Iron Age Judah. Ugarit-Forschungen 45: 111–142.
Feinman, G. M., and Carballo, D. M. (2018). Collaborative and competitive strategies in the variability and resiliency of large-scale societies in Mesoamerica. Economic Anthropology 5: 7–19.
Finkelstein, I. (1988). The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Finkelstein, I. (1992a). Edom in the Iron I. Levant XXIV: 159–166.
Finkelstein, I. (1992b). Invisible nomads - A rejoinder. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 287: 87–88.
Finkelstein, I. (1992c). Pastoralism in the highlands of Canaan in the third and second millennium BCE. In Bar-Yosef, O., and Khazanov, A. (eds.), Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, Prehistory Press, Madison, pp. 133–151.
Finkelstein, I. (1994). The emergence of Israel: A phase in the cyclic history of Canaan in the third and second millennia BCE. In Finkelstein, I., and Na’aman, N. (eds.), Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, pp. 150–178.
Finkelstein, I. (1999). State formation in Israel and Judah: A contrast in context, a contrast in trajectory. Near Eeastern Archaeology 62: 35–52.
Finkelstein, I. (2003). City-states to states: Polity dynamics in the 10th–9th centuries BCE. In Dever, W. G., and Gitin, S. (eds.), Symbiosis, Symbolism, and the Power of the Past: Canaan, Ancient Israel, and Their Neighbors from the Late Bronze Age through Roman Palaestina, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 75–83.
Finkelstein, I. (2005). [De]formation of the Israelite state: A rejoinder on methodology. Near Eastern Archaeology 68: 202–208.
Finkelstein, I. (2007). King Solomon’s golden age: History or myth? In Schmidt, B. B. (ed.), The Quest for Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel, Brill, Leiden, pp. 107–116.
Finkelstein, I. (2010). A great United Monarchy? Archaeological and historical perspectives. In Kratz, R. G., and Spieckermann, H. (eds.), One God – One Cult – One Nation, de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 3–28.
Finkelstein, I., Koch, I., and Lipschits, O. (2011). The mound on the Mount: A possible solution to the “problem with Jerusalem.” Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 11: https://doi.org/10.5508/jhs.2011.v11.a12.
Finkelstein, I., Lederman, Z., and Bunimovitz, S. (1997). Highlands of Many Cultures: The Southern Samaria Survey, 2 volumes, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Finkelstein, I., and Lipschits, O. (2011). The genesis of Moab: A proposal. Levant 43: 139–152.
Finkelstein, I., and Magen, Y. (1993). Archaeological Survey of the Hill Country of Benjamin, Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem.
Finkelstein, I., and Na’aman, N. (eds.) (1994). From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel, Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem.
Finkelstein, I., and Perevolotsky, A. (1990). Processes of sedentarization and nomadization in the history of Sinai and the Negev. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 279: 67–88.
Finkelstein, I., and Silberman, N. A. (2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, Touchstone, New York.
Finkelstein, I., and Silberman, N. A. (2006). David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible’s Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition, Simon & Schuster, New York.
Fitzhugh, W. W., Rossabi, M., and Honeychurch, W. (eds.) (2009). Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire, Dino Don Inc., Mongolian Preservation Foundation, and Arctic Studies Center, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Flannery, K. V. (1972). The cultural evolution of civilizations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 3: 399–426.
Fleming, D. E. (2004). Democracy’s Ancient Ancestors: Mari and Early Collective Governance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Fleming, D. E. (2009). Kingship of city and tribe conjoined: Zimri-Lim at Mari. In Szuchman, J. (ed.), Nomads, Tribes, and the State in the Ancient Near East, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, pp. 227–240.
Fowles, S. M. (2002). From social type to social process: Placing “tribe” in a historical framework. In Parkinson, W. A. (ed.), The Archaeology of Tribal Societies, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor, pp. 13–33.
Fowles, S. (2018). The evolution of simple society. Asian Archaeology 2: 19–32.
Frachetti, M. D. (2012). Multiregional emergence of mobile pastoralism and nonuniform institutional complexity across Eurasia. Current Anthropology 53: 2–38.
Frankel, R., Getzov, N., Aviam, M., and Degani, A. (2001). Settlement Dynamics and Regional Diversity in Ancient Upper Galilee: Archaeological Survey of Upper Galilee, Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem.
Frendo, A. J. (1996). The capabilities and limitations of ancient Near Eastern nomadic archaeology. Orientalia 65: 1–23.
Fried, M. H. (1975). The Notion of Tribe, Cummings, Menlo Park.
Gadot, Y. (2019). The Iron I settlement wave in the Samaria highlands and its connection with the urban centers. Near Eastern Archaeology 82: 32–41.
Gadot, Y., and Uziel, J. (2017). The monumentality of Iron Age Jerusalem prior to the 8th century BCE. Tel Aviv 44: 123–140.
Gal, Z. (1992). Lower Galilee during the Iron Age, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake.
Gardner, A., and Cochrane, E. E. (2011). Evolutionary and interpretive archaeologies: A dialogue. In Cochrane, E. E., and Gardner, A. (eds.), Evolutionary and Interpretive Archaeologies: A Dialogue, Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 11–29.
Garfinkel, Y. (2017). The Iron Age city of Khirbet Qeiyafa. In Lipschits, O., and Maeir, A. M. (eds.), The Shephelah during the Iron Age: Recent Archaeological Studies, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 115–132.
Garfinkel, Y., Hasel, M. G., Klingbeil, M. G., Kang, H.-G., Choi, G., Chang, S.-Y., et al. (2019). Lachish fortifications and state formation in the biblical kingdom of Judah in light of radiometric datings. Radiocarbon 61: 695–712.
Garfinkel, Y., Kreimerman, I., and Zilberg, P. (2016). Debating Khirbet Qeiyafa, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Garfinkel, Y., Streit, K., Ganor, S., and Hasel, M. G. (2012). State formation in Judah: Biblical tradition, modern historical theories and radiometric dates at Khirbet Qeiyafa. Radiocarbon 54: 359–369.
Garfinkle, S. J. (2008). Was the Ur III state bureaucratic? Patrimonialism and bureaucracy in the Ur III period. In Garfinkle, S. J., and Johnson, J. C. (eds.), The Growth of an Early State in Mesopotamia: Studies in Ur III Administration, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, pp. 55–61.
Giddens, A. (1984). The Constitution of Society, Polity Press, Cambridge.
Ginat, H., Meeshly, D., Avner, U., and Langford, B. (2018). Evidence of past flood intensities in the Nahal Amram copper mines. In Ben-Yosef, E. (ed.), Mining for Ancient Copper: Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, pp. 188–198.
Giveon, R. (1971). Les Bédouins Shosu de Documents Égyptien, Brill, Leiden.
Glassner, J.-J. (2004). Mesopotamian Chronicles, SBL Press, Atlanta.
Gophna, R., and Singer-Avitz, L. (1984). Iron Age I sites the the west of Tel Beer-Sheba. In Herzog, Z. (ed.), Beer-Sheba II: The Early Iron Age Settlements, Ramot, Tel Aviv, pp. 125–131.
Gottwald, N. K. (1979). The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250–1050 BCE, Orbis, Maryknoll, NY.
Halpern, B. (2001). David’s Secret Demons: Messiah, Murder, Traitor, King, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids.
Hämäläinen, P. (2008). The Comanche Empire, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Hämäläinen, P. (2013). What’s in a concept? The kinetic empire of the Comanches. History and Theory 52: 81–90.
Hanks, B. K., and Linduff, K. M. (2009). Reconsidering steppe social complexity within world prehistory. In Hanks, B. K., and Linduff, K. M. (eds.), Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–8.
Hardin, J. W., and Blakeley, J. W. (2019). Land use, regional integration, and political complexity: Understanding the Hesi region as pasturage during Iron Age IIA. Strata 37: 61–94.
Hartshorne, R. (1950). The functional approach in political geography. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 40: 95–130.
Hasel, M. G. (1998). Domination and Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, ca. 1300–1185 BC, Brill, Leiden.
Hayes, C. B. (2015). Biblical claims about Solomon’s kingdom in light of Egyptian “three-zone” ideology of territory. In Levy, T. E., Schneider, T., and Propp, W. H. C. (eds.), Israel’s Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective, Springer, New York, pp. 503–515.
Herr, L. G. (2012). Jordan in the Iron I and IIA periods. In Galil, G., Gilboa, A., Maeir, A. M., and Kahn, D. (eds.), The Ancient Near East in the 12th–10th Centuries BCE: Culture and History, Ugarit-Verlag, Münster, pp. 207–220.
Herr, S. A., and Clark, J. A. (2002). Mobility and the organization of prehispanic Southwest communities. In Parkinson, W. A. (ed.), The Archaeology of Tribal Societies, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor, pp. 123–154.
Hildebrand, E. A. (2013). Is monumentality in the eye of the beholder? Lessons from constructed spaces in Africa. Azania 48: 155–172.
Hodder, I. (1992). Theory and Practice in Archaeology, Routledge, London.
Hodder, I. (2012). Contemporary theoretical debate in archaeology. In Hodder, I. (ed.), Archaeological Theory Today, Polity Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–14.
Homan, M. M. (2002). To Your Tents, O Israel! The Terminology, Function, Form, and Symbolism of Tents in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East, Brill, Leiden.
Honeychurch, W. (2013). The nomad as state builder: Historical theory and material evidence from Mongolia. Journal of World Prehistory 26: 283–321.
Honeychurch, W. (2014). Alternative complexities: The archaeology of pastoral nomadic states. Journal of Archaeological Research 22: 277–326.
Honeychurch, W. (2015). Inner Asia and the Spatial Politics of Empire, Springer, New York.
Honeychurch, W., and Makarewicz, C. A. (2016). The archaeology of pastoral nomadism. Annual Review of Anthropology 45: 341–359.
Honeychurch, W., Wright, J., and Amartuvshin, C. (2009). Re-writing monumental landscapes as Inner Asian political process. In Hanks, B. K., and Linduff, K. M. (eds.), Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 330–357.
Houle, J.-L. (2009). Socially integrative facilities and the emergence of societal complexity on the Mongolian steppe. In Hanks, B. K., and Linduff, K. M. (eds.), Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 358–377.
Hutton, J. M. (2006). Mahanaim, Penuel, and transhumance routes: Observations on Genesis 32–33 and Judges 8. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 65: 161–178.
Hutzli, J. (2011). The meaning of the term ‘îr Dawıd in Samuel and Kings. Tel Aviv 38: 167–178.
Ilan, D. (2018). The “conquest” of the highlands in the Iron Age I. In Yasur-Landau, A., Cline, E. H., and Rowan, Y. M. (eds.), The Social Archaeology of the Levant, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 283–309.
Ji, C.-H. (2012). The early Iron Age II temple at Hirbet ‘Atarus and its architecture and selected cultic objects. In Kamlah, J. (ed.), Temple Building and Temple Cult: Architecture and Cultic Paraphernalia of Temples in the Levant (2.–1. Mill. BCE), Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, pp. 203–222.
Ji, C.-H. (2018). A Moabite sanctuary at Khirbat Ataruz, Jordan: Stratigraphy, findings, and archaeological implications. Levant 50: 173–210.
Ji, C.-H., Bates, R. D., Hawkins, R. K., and Schade, A. (2020). Khirbat ꜥAtaruz 2015: A preliminary report. Andrews University Seminary Studies 58: 85–104.
Johansen, P. G., and Bauer, A. M. (2011). Introduction: Reconfiguring the ‘political’ in the reconstruction of past political production. In Johansen, P. G., and Bauer, A. M. (eds.), The Archaeology of Politics: The Materiality of Political Practice and Action in the Past, Cambridge Scholars, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 1–28.
Kalimi, I. (2019). Writing and Rewriting the Story of Solomon in Ancient Israel, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Khazanov, A. M. (1994). Nomads and the Outside World, 2nd ed., University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Kiderlen, M., Bode, M., Hauptmann, A., and Bassiakos, Y. (2016). Tripod cauldrons produced at Olympia give evidence for trade with copper from Faynan (Jordan) to south west Greece, c. 950–750 BCE. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 8: 303–313.
Kim, H. J. (2016). The Huns, Routledge, London.
Kinneir, J. M. (1818). Journey Through Asia Minor, Armenia and Koordistan, in the Years 1813 and 1814, John Murray, London.
Kleiman, S., Kleiman, A., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2017). Metalworkers’ material culture in the early Iron Age Levant: The ceramic assemblage from Site 34 (Slaves’ Hill) in the Timna Valley. Tel Aviv 44: 232–264.
Kletter, R. (2004). Chronology and United Monarchy: A methodological review. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 120: 13–54.
Kloner, A. (2001). Survey of Jerusalem: The Northeastern Sector, Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem.
Knabb, K. A., Jones, W. N., Najjar, M., and Levy, T. E. (2014). Patterns of Iron Age mining and settlement in Jordan’s Faynan district: The Wadi al-Jariya survey in context. In Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., and Ben-Yosef, E. (eds.), New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan, Vol. 2, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles, pp. 577–626.
Knauf, E. A. (1992). Bedouin and Bedouin states. In Freedman, D. N. (ed.), Anchor Bible Dictionary, Doubleday, New York, pp. 634–638.
Koehler, L., and Baumgartner, W. (eds.) (1994). The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, rev. ed., Brill, Leiden.
Kohl, P. L. (2007). The Making of Bronze Age Eurasia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Kradin, N. N. (2006). Archaeological criteria of civilization. Social Evolution & History 5: 88–107.
Kradin, N. N. (2013). Criteria of complexity in evolution: Cross-cultural study in archaeology of prehistory. Social Evolution & History. 12: 28–50.
Kradin, N. N., Kharinsky, A. V., Baksheeva, S. E., Kovychev, E. V., and Prokopets, S. D. (2016). Archaeology of Genghis Khan empire in Mongolia and Transbaikalia (in Russian). In Russev, N. D. (ed.), Pax Mongolica and Eurasian Shocks in the 13th–14th Centuries, Stratum, Saint Petersburg, pp. 17–43.
Krause, J. J., Sergi, O., and Weingart, K. (eds.) (2020). Saul, Benjamin and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel, SBL Press, Atlanta.
Kristiansen, K. (1984). Ideology and material culture: An archaeological perspective. In Spriggs, M. (ed.), Marxist Perspectives in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 72–100.
Kuper, A. (2005). The Reinvention of Primitive Society: Transformations of a Myth, Routledge, London.
Kupper, J.-R. (1957). Les nomades de Mésopotamie au temps des rois de Mari, Société d’Édition Les Belles Lettres, Paris.
LaBianca, Ø. (2009). The poly-centric nature of social order in the Middle East: Preliminary reflections from anthropological archaeology. In Bienkowski, P. (ed.), Studies on Iron Age Moab and Neighbouring Areas in Honour of Michele Daviau, Peeters, Leuven, pp. 1–5.
LaBianca, Ø. (2021). Lenses on accumulative cultural production in the southern Levant: Toward a middle-range interpretive methodology. In Stordalen, T., and LaBianca, Ø. (eds.), Levantine Entanglements: Cultural Productions, Long-Term Changes, and Globalizations in the Eastern Mediterranean, Equinox, Sheffield, pp. 46–77.
LaBianca, Ø., and Younker, R. W. (1998). The kingdoms of Ammon, Moab and Edom: The archaeology of society in Late Bronze/Iron Age Transjordan (ca. 1400–500 BCE). In Levy, T. E. (ed.), Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, Leicester University Press, London, pp. 399–415.
Lehner, M. (2000). Fractal house of Pharaoh: Ancient Egypt as a complex adaptive system, a trial formulation. In Kohler, T., and Gumerman, G. (eds.), Dynamics in Human and Primate Societies, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 275–353.
Lemche, N. P. (1985). Early Israel: Anthropological and Historical Studies, Brill, Leiden.
Levy, T. E. (2009). Pastoral nomads and Iron Age metal production in ancient Edom. In Szuchman, J. (ed.), Nomads, Tribes, and the State in the Ancient Near East, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, pp. 147–177.
Levy, T. E., and Higham, T. (eds.) (2005). The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating, Equinox, London.
Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., and Ben-Yosef, E. (eds.) (2014). New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan, 2 volumes, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles.
Livni, J. (2015). Investigation of population growth of ancient Israel. Ugarit-Forschungen 46: 213–134.
Luke, J. T. (1965). Pastoralism and Politics in the Mari Period, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Maeir, A. M. (2017a). Philistine Gath after 20 years: Regional perspectives on the Iron Age at Tell es-Safi/Gath. In Lipschits, O., and Maeir, A. M. (eds.), The Shephelah during the Iron Age: Recent Archaeological Studies, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 133–154.
Maeir, A. M. (2017b). The Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath archaeological project: Overview. Near Eastern Archaeology 80: 212–231.
Maeir, A. M. (2020a). Introduction and overview. In Maeir, A. M., and Uziel, J. (eds.), Tell Es-Safi/Gath II: Exacavations and Studies, Zaphon, Münster, pp. 3–52.
Maeir, A. M. (2020b). Memories, myths, and megalithics: Reconsidering the giants of Gath. Journal of Biblical Literature 139: 675–690.
Maeir, A. M. (2021). On defining Israel: Or, let’s do the kulturkreislehre again! Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel 10: 106–148.
Maeir, A. M., Hitchcock, L. A., and Horwitz, L. K. (2013). On the constitution and transformation of Philistine identity. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 32: 1–38.
Makarewicz, C. A., Winter-Schuh, C., Byerly, H., and Houle, J.-L. (2018). Isotopic evidence for ceremonial provisioning of Late Bronze age khirigsuurs with horses from diverse geographic locales. Quaternary International 476: 70–81.
Marcus, J. (2003). Monumentality in archaic states: Lessons learned from large scale excavations of the past. In Papadopoulos, J., and Leventhal, R. (eds.), Theory and Practice in Mediterranean Archaeology: Old World and New World Perspectives, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles, pp. 115–134.
Martin, M. A. S., Eliyahu-Behar, A., Anenburg, M., Goren, Y., and Finkelstein, I. (2014). Iron IIA slag-tempered pottery in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 3777–3792.
Martin, M. A. S., and Finkelstein, I. (2013). Iron IIA pottery from the Negev Highlands: Petrographic investigation and historical implications. Tel Aviv 40: 6–45.
Master, D. M. (2001). State formation theory and the kingdom of ancient Israel. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 60: 117–131.
Mazar, A. (1981). Giloh: An early Israelite settlement site near Jerusalem. Israel Exploration Journal 31: 1–36.
Mazar, A. (2007a). The search for David and Solomon: An archaeological perspective. In Schmidt, B. B. (ed.), The Quest for Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel, Brill, Leiden, pp. 117–139.
Mazar, A. (2007b). The spade and the text: The interaction between archaeology and Israelite history Relating to the tenth-ninth centuries BCE. In Williamson, H. G. M. (ed.), Understanding the History of Ancient Israel, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 143–171.
Mazar, A. (2010). Archaeology and the biblical narrative: The case of the United Monarchy. In Kratz, R. G., and Spieckermann, H. (eds.), One God — One Cult — One Nation: Archaeological and Biblical Perspectives, de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 29–58.
McGuire, R. H. (1983). Breaking down cultural complexity: Inequality and heterogeneity. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 91–142.
McIntosh, S. K. (1999). Pathways to complexity: An african perspective. In McIntosh, S. K. (ed.), Beyond Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 1–30.
McIntosh, R. J. (2005). Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and the Self-organizing Landscape, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
McIntosh, R. J. (2015). Alternative polities. In Scott, R. A., Kosslyn, S. M., and Buchmann, M. (eds.), Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Wiley, New York, pp. 1–10.
Meir, A. (1988). Nomads and the state: The spatial dynamics of centrifugal and centripetal forces among the Israeli Negev Bedouin. Political Geography Quaterly 7: 251–270.
Mendenhall, G. (1962). The Hebrew conquest of Palestine. Biblical Archaeologist 25: 66–87.
Miglio, A. E. (2014). Tribe and State: The Dynamics of International Politics and the Reign of Zimri-lim, Gorgias Press, Piscataway.
Millard, A. R. (1992). Assyrian involvement in Edom. In Bienkowski, P. (ed.), Early Edom and Moab: The Beginning of the Iron Age in Southern Jordan, J. R. Collis Publications, Sheffield, pp. 35–39.
Millard, A. R. (2003). The Tell Dan stele. In Hallo, W. F., and Younger, K. L. (eds.), The Context of Scripture, Vol. II: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World, Brill, Leiden, pp. 161–162.
Miller, G. L. (2021). Ritual, labor mobilization, and monumental construction in small-scale societies: The case of Adena and Hopewell in the middle Ohio River valley. Current Anthropology 62: 164–197.
Moret, A., and Davy, G. (1926). From Tribe to Empire: Social Organization among Primitives and in the Ancient East, Kegan Paul, London.
Muniz, A., and Levy, T. E. (2014). Feeding the Iron Age metalworkers at Khirbat en-Nahas zooarchaeological data. In Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., and Ben-Yosef, E. (eds.), New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan, Vol. 2, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles, pp. 627–663.
Na’aman, N. (1994). The “conquest of Canaan” in the book of Joshua and in history. In Finkelstein, I., and Na’aman, N. (eds.), From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel, Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, pp. 218–281.
Na’aman, N. (2010). Does archaeology really deserve the status of a ‘high court’ in biblical historical research? In Becking, B., and Grabbe, L. (eds.), Between Evidence and Ideology: Essays on the History of Ancient Israel Read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln, July 2009, Brill, Leiden, pp. 165–183.
Nahashoni, P. (2009). Naẖal Patish: Preliminary report. Hadashot Arkheologiyot/Excavations and Surveys in Israel 121: https://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=1272&mag_id=115.
Nelson, B. A. (1995). Complexity, hierarchy, and scale: A controlled comparison between Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, and la Quemada, Zacatecas. American Antiquity 60: 597–618.
Ofer, A. (1993). The Highland of Judah during the Biblical Period (in Hebrew), Ph.D. dissertation, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Osborne, J. (ed.) (2014a). Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology, State University of New York Press, Albany.
Osborne, J. F. (2014b). Monuments and monumentality. In Osborne, J. F. (ed.), Approaching Monumentality in Archaeology, State University of New York Press, Albany, pp. 1–19.
Pauketat, T. R. (2007). Chiefdoms and Other Archaeological Delusions, AltaMira Press, Lanham, MD.
Petter, T. D. (2018). Tribes and nomads in the Iron Age Levant. In Greer, J. S., Hilber, J. W., and Walton, J. H. (eds.), Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament, Baker Academic, Grand Rapids, pp. 391–395.
Pioske, D. (2019). The “high court” of ancient Israel’s past: Archaeology, texts, and the question of priority. Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 19: doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5508/jhs.2019.v19.a1.
Pluciennik, M. (2005). Social Evolution, Duckworth, London.
Porter, A. (2012). Mobile Pastoralism and the Formation of Near Eastern Civilizations, Cambridge University Press, New York.
Postgate, N. (2013). Bronze Age Bureaucracy: Writing and the Practice of Government in Assyria, Cambridge University Press, New York.
Potts, D. T. (2014). Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era, Oxford University Press, New York.
Rainey, A. F. (1975). Notes on some Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions. Israel Exploration Journal 25: 106–116.
Rainey, A. F. (2007). Whence came the Israelites and their language? Israel Exploration Journal 57: 41–64.
Rainey, A. F,. and Notley, R. S. (2014). The Sacred Bridge, 2nd ed., Carta, Jerusalem.
Rede, M. (2015). Le palais bedouin a Mari: Royaute urbaine et chefferie tribal. In Michel, C. (ed.), Séminaire d’histoire et d’archéologie des mondes orientaux (SHAMO), 2010–2013: De la maison à la ville dans l’Orient ancient, CNRS, Nanterre, pp. 139–147.
Richelle, M. (2016). Elusive scrolls: Could any Hebrew literature have been written prior to the eighth century BCE? Vetus Testamentum 66: 556–594.
Riehl, S. (2006). Nomadism, pastoralism and transhumance in the archaeobotanical record — Examples and methodological problems. In Hauser, S. R. (ed.), Die Sichtbarkeit von Nomaden Und Saisonaler Besiedlung in Der Archäologie. Multidisziplinäre Annäherungen an Ein Methodisches Problem, Orientwissenschaftliches Zentrum, Halle, pp. 105–125.
Rosen, S. A. (1987). Demographic trends in the Negev Highlands: Preliminary results of the emergency survey. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 266: 45–58.
Rosen, S. A. (2017). Revolutions in the Desert: The Rise of Mobile Pastoralism in the Southern Levant, Routledge, London.
Rosen, S. A., and Lehmann, G. (2010). Hat das biblische Israel einen nomadischen Ursprung? Kritische Beobachtungen aus der Perspektive der Archäologie und Kulturanthropologie. Welt des Orients 40: 160–189.
Routledge, B. (2000). The politics of Mesha: Segmented identities and state formation in Iron Age Moab. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 43: 221–256.
Rowton, M. B. (1976). Dimorphic structure and the tribal elite. In Al-Bahit: Festschrift Joseph Henninger, Verlag des Anthropos-Instituts, Bonn, pp. 219–257.
Said, E. (2003). Orientalism, Penguin, London.
Sapir-Hen, L., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2013). The introduction of domestic camels to the southern Levant: Evidence from the Aravah Valley. Tel Aviv 40: 277–285.
Sapir-Hen, L., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2014). The socioeconomic status of Iron Age metalworkers: Animal economy in the ‘Slaves’ Hill’, Timna, Israel. Antiquity 88: 775–790.
Sapir-Hen, L., Lernau, O., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2018). The diet of ancient metalworkers: The Late Bronze and early Iron Ages in the Arabah Valley (Timna and Feynan). In Ben-Yosef, E. (ed.), Mining for Ancient Copper: Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg, Eisenbrauns/Tel Aviv University, Winona Lake/Tel Aviv, pp. 64–80.
Schiffer, M. B. (1996). Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Schloen, J. D. (2001). The House of the Father as Fact and Symbol: Patrimonialism in Ugarit and the Ancient Near East, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake.
Schloen, J. D. (2017). Economic and political implications of raising the date for the disappearance of walled towns in the Early Bronze Age southern Levant. In Höflmayer, F. (ed.), The Late Third Millennium in the Ancient Near East: Chronology, 14C and Climate Change, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 59–72.
Schniedewind, W. M. (2022). Solomon from archival sources to collective memory. In Schaper, J., MacAskill, G., and Maier, C. M. (eds.), Congress Volume: Aberdeen 2019, Brill, Leiden, pp. 338–357.
Sergi, O. (2017). The emergence of Judah as a political entity between Jerusalem and Benjamin. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 133: 1–23.
Sergi, O. (2020). Saul, David, and the formation of the Israelite monarchy: Revisiting the historical and literary context of 1 Samuel 9–2 Samuel 5. In Krause, J. J., Sergi, O., and Weingart, K. (eds.), Saul, Benjamin and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel, SBL Press, Atlanta, pp. 57–91.
Service, E. R. (1971). Primitive Social Organization, 2nd ed., Random House, New York.
Service, E. R. (1975). Origins of the State and Civilization, Norton, New York.
Shanks, M., and Tilley, C. (1987). Social Theory and Archaeology, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Silvia Castillo, J. (2005). Nomadism through the ages. In Snell, D. C. (ed.), A Companion to the Ancient Near East, Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp. 126–140.
Smelik, K. A. D. (2003). The Inscription of King Mesha. In Hallo, W. W., and Younger, K. L. (eds.), The Context of Scripture, Vol. II: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World, Brill, Leiden, pp. 137–138.
Smith, N. G., Goren, Y. and Levy, T. E. (2014). The petrography of iron age Edom. In Levy, T. E., Najjar, M. and Ben-Yosef, E. (eds.), New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan, Vol. 1, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles, pp. 461–491.
Sneath, D. (2007a). The decentralised state: Nomads, complexity and sociotechnical systems in Inner Asia. In Kohring, S., and Wynne-Jones, S. (eds.), Socialising Complexity: Approaches to Power and Interaction in the Archaeological Record, Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 228–244.
Sneath, D. (2007b). The Headless State: Aristocratic Order, Kinship Society & Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia, Columbia University Press, New York.
Sparks, K. L. (2009). Israel and the nomads of ancient Palestine. In Knoppers, G. N., and Ristau, K. A. (eds.), Community Identity in Judean Historiography, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 9–26.
Stager, L. E. (1985). The archaeology of the family in ancient Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 260: 1–35.
Stager, L. E. (2003). The patrimonial kingdom of Solomon. In Dever, W. G., and Gitin, S. (eds.), Symbiosis, Symbolism, and the Power of the Past: Canaan, Ancient Israel, and Their Neighbors from the Late Bronze Age through Roman Palaestina, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 63–74.
Stanish, C. (2017). The Evolution of Human Co-operation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Stein, G. J. (1998). Heterogeneity, power, and political economy: Some current research issues in the archaeology of Old World complex societies. Journal of Archaeological Research 6: 1–44.
Steiner, M. L. (2014). Moab during the Iron Age II period. In Steiner, M. L., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: C. 8000–332 BCE, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 770–781.
Stordalen, T., and LaBianca, Ø. S. (eds.) (2021). Levantine Entanglements: Cultural Productions, Long-Term Changes, and Globalizations in the Eastern Mediterranean, Equinox, Sheffield.
Sukenik, N., Iluz, D., Amar, Z., Varvak, A., Shamir, O., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2021). Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel). PLoS One 16: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245897.
Sukenik, N., Iluz, D., Amar, Z., Varvak, A., Workman, V., Shamir, O., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2017). Early evidence (late 2nd millennium BCE) of plant-based dyeing of textiles from Timna, Israel. PLoS One 12: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179014.
Thomas, Z. (2018). A matter of interpretation: On methodology and the archaeology of the United Monarchy. Archaeology and Text 2: 25–51.
Thomas, Z. (2019a). A Patrimonial Model of the United Monarchy of Ancient Israel, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Ancient History, Macquarie University, Sydney.
Thomas, Z. (2019b). Polycentrism and the terminology of polity in early Israel. Bible Lands e-Review S2: 1–14.
Thomas, Z. (2022). The political history of Megiddo in the early Iron Age and the ambiguities of evidence. Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History 9: 69–94.
Thucydides (2013). The War of the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, J. Mynott (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Trigger, B. G. (1980). Archaeology and the image of the American Indian. American Antiquity 45: 662–676.
Trigger, B. G. (1990). Monumental architecture: A thermodynamic explanation of symbolic behaviour. World Archaeology 22: 119–132.
Trigger, B. G. (1996). A History of Archaeological Thought, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, New York.
Trigger, B. G. (2004). Settlement patterns in the postmodern world: A study of monumental architecture in early civilizations. In Vishnyatsky, L., Kovalev, A., and Scheglova, O. (eds.), The Archaeologist: Detective and Thinker, St. Petersburg University Press, St. Petersburg, pp. 237–248.
Ur, J. (2014). Households and the emergence of cities in ancient Mesopotamia. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 24: 249–268.
Ussishkin, D. (2003). Solomon’s Jerusalem: The text and the facts on the ground. In Vaughn, A. G., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), Jerusalem in the Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period, SBL Press, Atlanta, pp. 103–116.
Uziel, J., and Shai, I. (2007). Iron Age Jerusalem: Temple-palace, capital city. Journal of the American Oriental Society 127: 161–170.
van der Steen, E. J. (2004). Tribes and Territories in Transition, Peeters, Leuven.
van der Steen, E. (2009). Tribal societies in the nineteenth century: A model. In Szuchman, J. (ed.), Nomads, Tribes, and the State in the Ancient Near East, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 105–117.
van der Steen, E. (2013). Near Eastern Tribal Societies in the Nineteenth Century, Equinox, Sheffield.
van Driel, G. (2001). On villages. In van Soldt, W. H., Dercksen, J. G., Kouwenberg, N. J. C., and Krispijn, T. J. H. (eds.), Veenhof Anniversary Volume: Studies Presented to Klaas R. Veenhof on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday, Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, Leiden, pp. 103–118.
Vaelske, V., Bode, M., and Loeben, C. E. (2019). Early Iron Age copper trail between Wadi Arabah and Egypt during the 21st dynasty: First results from Tanis, ca. 1000 BC. Zeitschrift für Orient-Archäologie 12: 184–203.
Ward, W. W. (1972). The Shasu “Bedouin”: Notes on a recent publication. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 15: 35–60.
Weber, M. (1978). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretative Sociology, Roth, G., and Wittich, C. (eds.), University of California Press, Berkeley.
Weippert, M. (1971). The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Palestine, SCM Press, London.
Wenke, R. J. (1981). Explaining the evolution of cultural complexity: A review. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 4: 79–127.
Wilkinson, T. J. (2000). Regional approaches to Mesopotamian archaeology: The contribution of archaeological surveys. Journal of Archaeological Research 8: 219–267.
Wobst, H. M. (1978). The archaeo-ethnology of hunter-gatherers or the tyranny of the ethnographic record in archaeology. American Antiquity 43: 303–309.
Workman, V. (2016). The fabric of copper production: The textile and cordage artifacts from Iron Age Timna, M.A. thesis, Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Yahalom-Mack, N., and Eliyahu-Behar, A. (2015). The transition from Bronze to Iron in Canaan: Chronology, technology, and context. Radiocarbon 57: 285–305.
Yahalom-Mack, N., Galili, E., Segal, I., Eliyahu-Behar, A., Boaretto, E., Shilstein, S., and Finkelstein, I. (2014). New insights into Levantine copper trade: Analysis of ingots from the Bronze and Iron Ages in Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science 45: 159–177.
Yahalom-Mack, N., Martin, M. A. S., Tirosh, O., Erel, Y., and Finkelstein, I. (2015). Lead isotope analysis of slag-tempered Negev Highlands pottery. Antiguo Oriente 13: 83–98.
Yahalom-Mack, N., and Segal, I. (2018). The Origin of the copper used in Canaan during the Late Bronze/Iron Age transition. In Ben-Yosef, E. (ed.), Mining for Ancient Copper: Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg, Tel Aviv University/Eisenbrauns, Tel Aviv/Winona Lake, pp. 313–331.
Yoffee, N. (1979). The cecline and rise of Mesopotamian civilization: An ethnoarchaeological perspective on the evolution of social complexity. American Antiquity 44: 5–35.
Yoffee, N. (1993). Too many chiefs? (or, safe texts for the ’90s). In Yoffee, N., and Sherratt, A. (eds.), Archaeological Theory: Who Sets the Agenda? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 60–78.
Yoffee, N. (2005). Myths of the Archaic State, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Younger, K. L. (2016). A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities, SBL Press, Atlanta.
Younker, R. W. (1997). Moabite social structure. Biblical Archaeologist 60: 237–248.
Zeder, M. A. (2009). The Neolithic macro-(r)evolution: Macroevolutionary theory and the study of culture change. Journal of Archaeological Research 17: 1–63.
Zertal, A., Bar, S., and Mirkam, N. (2004–2022). The Manasseh Hill Country Survey, 7 volumes, Brill, Leiden.
Zucconi, L. M. (2007). From the wilderness of Zin alongside Edom: Edomite territory in the eastern Negev during the eighth-sixth centuries BCE. In Malena, S., and Miano, D. (eds.), Milk and Honey—Essays on Ancient Israel and the Bible in Appreciation of the Judaic Studies Program at the University of California, San Diego, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, pp. 241–256.
Bibliography of Recent Literature
Burentogtokh, J., Honeychurch, W., and Gardner, W. (2019). Complexity as integration: Pastoral mobility and community building in ancient Mongolia. Social Evolution & History 18: 55–72.
Crowell, B. J. (2021). Edom at the Edge of Empire: A Social and Political History, SBL Press, Atlanta.
Faust, A., and Sapir, Y. (2018). The “Governor’s Residency” at Tel ‘Eton, the United Monarchy, and the impact of the old-house effect on large-scale archaeological reconstructions. Radiocarbon 60: 801–820.
Faust, A., Garfinkel, Y., and Mumcuoglu, M. (eds.) (2021). State Formation Processes in the 10th Century BCE Levant, Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology 1.
Graeber, D., and Wengrow, D. (2021). The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York.
Ilani, O. (2016). In Search of the Hebrew People, Leo Baeck Institute, Jerusalem.
Prust, A., and Hausleiter, A. (2020). Camel exploitation in the oasis of Taymāʾ– Caravan or consumption? In Agut-Labordère, D., and Redon, B. (eds.), Les vaisseaux du désert et des steppes: Les camélidés aans l’antiquité (Camelus dromedarius et Camelus bactrianus), MOM Éditions, Lyon, https://books.openedition.org/momeditions/8557
Tyson, C. W. (2014). The Ammonites: Elites, Empires, and Sociopolitical Change (1000–500 BCE), T&T Clark, New York.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank editor Gary Feinman for inviting this paper and to the whole editorial team for their assistance in its production. This study was partially supported by the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University (through its Post-Doctoral Fellowship program to ZT) and the Israel Science Foundation, grant #1880/17 to EB-Y. The authors would also like to thank Charles Stanish for commenting on an earlier version of this paper, as well as seven anonymous peer reviewers for many helpful recommendations and additional literature. All views and errors remain the authors’ alone.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ben-Yosef, E., Thomas, Z. Complexity Without Monumentality in Biblical Times. J Archaeol Res 32, 59–101 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-023-09184-0
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-023-09184-0