Abstract
Carbamazepine (CBZ) is a contaminant of emerging concern that is persistent in water and wastewater. At low concentrations, prolonged exposure to CBZ-containing water causes detrimental health effects to humans and may also have negative impacts on the environment. Here we critically review new treatment approaches to decrease CBZ concentrations in water and wastewater. First, we summarize the transformation pathways of CBZ in the aquatic environment and identify the corresponding products. Then, we describe the removal of CBZ and structurally-related pharmaceuticals by phototransformation, biotransformation, and adsorption processes, with an emphasis on the application of naturally- and biologically-derived nanoporous adsorbents, such as agricultural wastes, natural polymers, activated carbon, metal organic frameworks, silicas, and molecularly imprinted polymers. Biologically-derived activated carbons exhibited the highest adsorption capacities for CBZ, with adsorption predominantly occurring through hydrophobic and π–π interactions. CBZ was also effectively treated using titanium dioxide and other inorganic photocatalysts. This review not only provides a critical synthesis of state-of-the-art adsorption and degradation processes for CBZ and structurally-related pharmaceuticals, but also proposes knowledge gaps and future research directions.
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Research ethics: Not applicable.
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Research involving human participants and/or animals: Not applicable.
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Code availability: Not applicable.
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Author contributions: Hebatullah Farghal: writing – original draft, preparation of figures. Marianne Nebsen: writing – review & editing. Lee Blaney: writing – review & editing, data curation. Mayyada El-Sayed: writing – review & editing, data curation, supervision. All authors participated in the process of draft completion. The authors confirm that this manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by another journal. All authors have approved the manuscript and agreed with submission to this journal. All authors have agreed to publish.
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Competing interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Research funding: Not applicable.
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Data availability: All data are available within the manuscript.
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